Photomicrograph's Of microscopic nano structures Organic as well as Inorganic...
ђยzєє:
These pictures u see below are actual photographs ie micrographs taken from a scanning electron tunneling microscope which has the ability to view the nanometer scale where organic chemicals, dna, proteins can be viewed, and at the picometer, femtometer, attometer even upto the yoctometer scale which only the latest of this type microscope can view, a world where even atoms n their individual elctrons look as large a tennis ball... At this scale using polarized light, colors are formed naturally, all these micrographs are untouched by image manipulating s/w and appear in their natural state colors..... All the micrographs shown are taken with the subject being in eighter Liquid or Semi-solid crystalline phase ...
just amazing stuff :) Some of these explanations require a Phd degree in Organic Chemistry and Medical Pharmacology both just to understand !!! :P But the fact is that the Images are really stunning n totally unseen here... thats why I decided to post these...
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DNA Precholesteric to Cholesteric Phase Transition
Transition of the dilute precholesteric to cholesteric phase is occurring in this photomicrograph of liquid crystalline calf thymus DNA. Domains with a light blue background represent those areas of the specimen that have undergone the transition from precholesteric to cholesteric. Areas with a darker background and having a lesser degree of birefringence are precholesteric. The DNA concentration for this specimen was initially 100 milligrams per millimeter, but this changes as the solvent evaporates. The magnification is approximately 150x. Originally recorded on Fujichrome 64T transparency film using a Nikon Optiphot-Pol microscope with crossed polarized illumination, the image above was digitized using a Nikon CoolScan transparency film scanner. Exposures were recorded about 2.5 f-steps under the recommended value given by an in-camera photomultiplier and were push-processed approximately 1.5 f-steps in the first E-6 developer.
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High Density Liquid Crystalline DNA
The shift in interference colors from yellow to orange seen from bottom to top in this photomicrograph is indicative of a gradual thickness gradient. Many of the focal conic textures also display banding, which occurs as the DNA concentration approaches that seen in single crystals. The DNA concentration for this specimen is approximately 450 milligrams per millimeter, and the magnification is approximately 250x. The digital image presented above was originally recorded on Fujichrome 64T transparency film using a Nikon Optiphot-Pol microscope with crossed polarized illumination. Exposures were recorded about 2.5 f-steps under the recommended value given by an in-camera photomultiplier and were push-processed approximately 1.5 f-steps in the first E-6 developer.
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Sharp Boundaries in Transition Regions
Employing short DNA fragments of defined molecular length increases the speed and sharpens the boundaries in liquid crystalline phase transitions. The image presented above illustrates the transition from cholesteric to high density mesophases in DNA controlled drying experiments. A sharp transition region appears between the yellow striated high density phase and the light blue cholesteric region. The DNA concentration in this experiment is approximately 300 milligrams per milliliter, and the photomicrograph magnification is approximately 350x. Originally recorded on Fujichrome 64T transparency film using a Nikon Optiphot-Pol microscope with crossed polarized illumination, the image was digitized using a Nikon CoolScan transparency film scanner. Exposures were recorded about 3 f-steps under the recommended value given by an in-camera photomultiplier and were push-processed approximately 1.75 f-steps in the first E-6 developer.
AIDS Therapeutics
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3'-Azidothymidine (AZT)
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2',3'-Dideoxycytidine (DDC)
Dideoxycytidine is used in the treatment of AIDS, usually in combination with AZT and/or other drugs. Although these drugs will not lead to a cure of this deadly malady, they do help slow down the destruction of the immune system by the AIDS virus. The drug is marketed in the United States and Canada under the trade name Hivid or ddC. Side effects include abdominal pain, nausea, tingling, burning, and numbness.
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2',3'-Dideoxyinosine (DDI)
Didanosine is marketed in the United States and Canada under the trade name Videx. This nucleotide antagonist appears to help prevent the reproduction of the AIDS virus in infected patients whose health has deteriorated during treatment with AZT. Didanosine has been demonstrated to increase the number of CD4 helper white blood cells that are usually depressed in advanced stages of AIDS. Unfortunately, didanosine is known to produce some serious side effects including inflammation of the pancreas and painful nerve damage.
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Sildenafil (Viagra) >:D
Viagra is an exciting new drug that was introduced by Pfizer to treat impotence in men. The drug is a synthetic heterocyclic piperazine derivative that acts by selective inhibition of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) phosphodiesterase type 5 allowing a relaxation of smooth muscles and inflow of blood to the corpus cavernosum, a condition that leads to erection during sexual stimulation. Because viagra serves to lower blood pressure in parts of the body it should not be taken in conjunction with nitrates, such as nitroglycerin, because in combination they can lower blood pressure too much. Side effects include headache, flushing, upset stomach, urinary tract infection, and diarrhea.
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Tylenol Or Crocin (Acetaminophen)
Tylenol is one of over 100 brand names of the analgesic acetaminophen that acts quickly and safely to provide temporary relief of minor headaches, minor muscular aches, overexertion, menstrual cramps, and many other ailments. Acetaminophen is available without a prescription, and is widely used either by itself or in combination with other drugs to produce a wide variety of effects. Side effects include yellow eyes or skin, diarrhea, loss of appetite, nausea, and swelling. Common Brand name here in India is Crocin.
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Ampicillin
The powerful antibiotic penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928 when he observed, by chance, that bacterial growth was inhibited by a contaminating mold (Penicillium). Since then, many synthetic derivatives of penicillin have been made and used for a wide spectrum of applications. Ampicillin is one of the most useful of these derivatives and serves as a highly effective medication to quench many bacterial infections. Side effects include fever, joint pain, swelling, skin rash, hives, and itching.
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Aspirin
Aspirin is a salicylic acid acetate with anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties that also acts as a highly effective non-opiate analgesic. The drug crystallizes in the form of a white, needle-like powder with only a faint odor. In most cases, pharmaceutical aspirin is covered in a casing to buffer the stomach from injury that may occur from ingesting the drug directly. This coating causes the aspirin to digest in the duodenum, instead of the stomach, which is a more neutral-to-alkaline environment. Aspirin may also be useful in reducing the risk of heart attack, stroke, or other problems that may occur when a blood vessel is blocked. Side effects include loss of hearing, confusion, diarrhea, dizziness, and drowsiness.
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Caffeine
Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant most commonly found in the coffee we drink every morning. As a drug, caffeine is used to help restore mental alertness and to prevent drowsiness. Like most xanthines that serve as the nucleus for pharmacological agents, caffeine is rapidly absorbed and distributed in all body tissues and fluids including the central nervous system, fetal tissues, and breast milk. Caffeine is cleared from the body through metabolism and excreted in the urine. Symptoms of overdose include insomnia, restlessness, tremor, delirium, tachycardia, and running of the mouth.
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Ciprofloxacin (Cipro)
Ciprofloxacin is a member of the fluoroquinolone family of antibiotics that exhibit a wide spectrum of activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. The mechanism of action is inhibition of DNA gyrase, an enzyme that is critical to bacterial chromosome replication. Side effects include abdominal pain, diarrhea, dizziness, headache and nausea.
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Platinol (Cisplatin)
Platinol is a synthetic anticancer agent that belongs to a group of drugs known as alkylating agents. The drug acts by cross-linking the two DNA strands in a manner that is not cell cycle specific. Platinol concentrates in the liver, kidneys, and the large and small intestines, but the drug has a very poor penetration into the blood-brain barrier. Platinol is used primarily for bladder and ovarian tumors as well as small-cell carcinomas of the lung. Side effects include joint pain, ringing in the ears, trouble in hearing, and weakness.
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Glipizide (Glucotrol XL)
Glipizide is a synthetic sulfonylurea that is used to treat diabetes mellitus, which is a non-insulin dependent diabetes commonly occurring in adults (and referred to as adult-onset or type II diabetes). Metabolically, glipizide appears to stimulate insulin secretion from beta cells of the pancreatic islet tissue, although the mechanism by which glipizide lowers blood glucose during long-term administration has not been clearly established. Side effects include convulsions and seizures along with fainting or unconsciousness.
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Ibuprofen
Ibuprofen is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug that is used to treat symptoms caused by arthritis, such as swelling, pain, and stiffness. This drug is widely available without prescription and is marketed under a variety of trade names including Advil, Nuprin, and Motrin. Ibuprofen is also often used to reduce fever and many people take it as a painkiller, although it has not been demonstrated to have remarkable effects on headaches. Side effects include fainting, irregular heartbeat, shortness of breath, and tightness in the chest.
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Quinine (Falciquin, Kunen, Rubiquin)
Quinine, a stereoisomer of quinidine, can be used for fever and pain relief, but is better known as a treatment for malaria. The alkaloid, naturally derived from cinchona bark, was the only effective remedy for malaria available until World War I and was first synthesized in the laboratory in 1944. Quinine acts by interfering with the growth and proliferation of malarial parasites inhabiting red blood cells. Malarial symptoms quickly dissipate when quinine is administered, but when treatment is halted, many patients suffer a relapse because parasites surviving in other cells of the body reinfect red blood cells. Since quinine does not provide a complete cure for malaria, a number of other antimalarial drugs have been produced and are often utilized in its place. Moreover, prolonged use of quinine may produce toxic side effects, such as deafness, rashes, vision irregularities, and digestive problems.
Vitamins
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Ascorbic Acid (vitamin C)
Vitamin C is perhaps the most popular vitamin among the common nutrients and biochemicals. Because the vitamin is water-soluble, it must be regularly replenished and is commonly found in fresh fruits, especially in the citrus family that is dominated by oranges, lemons, limes, and tangerines. Vitamin C (commonly referred to as ascorbic acid) is also abundant in green leafy vegetables. One of the prime responsibilities of ascorbic acid is to assist in the production of collagen, the principal protein used to synthesize connective tissue that is essential to skin, bone, and cartilage formation. Vitamin C accomplishes this task by helping the body utilize such nutrients as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. More Important, ascorbic acid is recognized as a potent anti-oxidant, helping to protect cells from damage by free radicals. The biochemical is also essential for wound healing and in strengthening blood vessel walls. Among the many sources of vitamin C are grapefruits, melons, papaya, cabbage, strawberries, broccoli, winter squash and raspberries.
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Thiamine (Vitamin B-1)
The first recognized vitamin deficiency disease was beriberi, a condition that is manifested by numerous neurological and metabolic disorders. Sufficient thiamine in the diet is a sure cure for beriberi, a fact that was established over a long period of time through crude dietary experiments by the Chinese, Japanese, and Dutch. Biochemically, thiamine forms a coenzyme after phosphorylation by an ATP-dependent pyrophosphorylase. Thiamine pyrophosphate contains a substituted pyrimidine nitrogen heterocyclic ring and a thiazole nitrogen-sulfur heterocycle. The thiazole moiety is responsible for the coenzyme's activity in pyruvate metabolism where it acts to perform a nonoxidative decarboxylation. Clinically, thiamine helps to maintain normal function of the nervous system, muscles, and heart, and is necessary for normal growth and development. Common sources of thiamine are kidney, liver, brewer's yeast, flour, beans, pork, salmon, soybeans, and wheat germ. Symptoms of thiamine deficiency are loss of appetite, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, and mental problems. Severe deficiency leads to beriberi, pain in the arms and legs, heart enlargement and fluid accumulation.
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alpha-Tocopherol (Vitamin E)
Vitamin E was the fifth vitamin discovered when researchers found that a dietary deficiency in laboratory rats produced fetal death in pregnant females. The name "tocopherol" was derived from the Greek words for childbirth (tos), to bring forth (phero), and the chemical designation for an alcohol (ol). Vitamin E acts as a co-enzyme in cellular membranes and serves as a scavenger for free radicals that are destructive to the membrane and internal cellular components. Natural sources of vitamin E are vegetable oils, sunflower seeds, almonds, and peanuts.
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Riboflavin (Vitamin B-2)
Riboflavin is a water-soluble vitamin that was named from the Latin word flavius (yellow) to denote the deep color of crystals formed from the pure vitamin and the deep yellow color it gives to urine. Biochemically, riboflavin is metabolized to form the flavin coenzymes: flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and flavin mononucleotide (FMN). The functional moiety in both coenzymes is riboflavin's isoalloxazine ring system, which serves as a two-electron acceptor in enzymatic biochemical reductions. Enzymes that use a flavin cofactor are termed "flavoproteins" and have been extensively studied. Common sources of riboflavin are almonds, yeast, cheese, eggs, chicken, beef, kidney, liver, and wheat germ. Clinically, riboflavin promotes normal growth, helps with the breakdown of fat, and assists in the synthesis of steroids, red blood cells, and glycogen. Symptoms associated with riboflavin deficiency are inflammation of the tongue, light sensitivity, itching, dizziness, insomnia, and slow learning.
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Retinol (Vitamin A)
The first nutritional deficiency disease to be identified and studied was night blindness. Ancient cultures recognized this and utilized cooked liver as both a topical and systemic cure for this malady. Retinol was first identified in 1920 and, being the first vitamin, was named vitamin A under the alphabetical nomenclature system. Its high concentration in the liver is due to the fat-soluble nature of this polyene biochemical, although because of the storage mechanism, excessive doses of vitamin A can be very toxic. The most critical biochemical to vision is retinal, an aldehyde that can be synthesized in vivo from retinol by NAD oxidation. Retinal exists in several isomeric states that are modulated by photon irridation and are very important in the conversion of light waves into vision. The most common source of vitamin A is liver, but many plants contain beta-carotene, which is metabolically converted to vitamin A. Symptoms associated with a deficiency of vitamin A are night blindness, changes in the eyes, poor bone growth, weak tooth enamel, slow growth, and dry skin.
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Adenine (Vitamin B-4)
Early studies of chicks and rats that were fed autoclaved cereals without nutritional supplements, indicated that these animals exhibited retarded growth and developed general muscular weakness leading to paralysis. Dr. V. Reader isolated a factor from both yeast and liver that alleviated these symptoms, and he later termed the factor vitamin B-4. This vitamin was determined to be adenine, the purine present as a nucleotide base in both DNA and RNA. However, subsequent investigations indicated that the addition of adenine to the deprived animals' diet did not alleviate the retarded growth and paralysis symptoms. Later, workers found that thiamine (vitamin B-1) cured the symptoms and it is now generally agreed that adenine does not possess any vitamin properties. In fact, the human body has a number of complicated pathways to produce adenine, and this substance is definitely not required as a dietary supplement.
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Niacin (Nicotinamide, Vitamin B-3)
For metabolic purposes, niacin is interchangeable with its amide, niacinamide, also known as nicotinamide. Important in the biochemistry of humans and other organisms, both substances are components of the coenzymes nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), which function in a number of oxidation and reduction reactions catalyzed by enzymes. A niacin deficiency in humans often leads to a chronic illness called pellagra, characterized by gastrointestinal problems, lesions of the skin, and dementia. In dogs, a similar condition is known as black tongue disease. Both illnesses can generally be avoided by regularly including sources of niacin in the diet, including legumes, lean meats, and whole-grain or enriched breads and cereals. Some protein-rich food items that are poor sources of niacin, such as eggs and milk, can also help reduce the risk of niacin deficiency because they contain tryptophan, an amino acid that can be converted into niacin through bacterial action in the body.
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Cholecalciferol (Vitamin D)
Cholecalciferol is the most widely known of the vitamin D series and is a fat soluble vitamin that is stored to some degree in the body. Many people know that sunlight is a source of vitamin D, but this is true only in the fact that ultraviolet light from the sun acts as a catalyst on a vitamin D precursor in the skin. Vitamin D formed in this manner is termed "natural vitamin D" or vitamin D3. Vitamin D precursors obtained from milk and other products as well as sunlight-produced vitamin D must be metabolized in the liver to form the active coenzyme. The primary functions of vitamin D are stimulation of calcium and magnesium absorption, two minerals that are essential for strong bones. Sources of vitamin D include fish liver oil, butter, and milk
!! KISHMISH !!:
wow yaar exceptional post to begin with huzee..the text is valuable info ..+k
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